wisdomhoots

Economic Development & Growth

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The increase in monetary value of the goods and services produced in an economy in a given time period or a fiscal year (short term) is referred to as economic growth. It is a quantitative measure of business transactions taking place in an economy. It is measured in terms of the increase in the aggregate market value of additional goods and services produced by using concepts like GDP and GNP. When compared to economic development (multi-dimensional aspects to measure a nation’s quality of life), economic growth is a narrow concept (uni-dimensional, i.e., GDP and GNP-based increase in monetary value of production). It may not require any state intervention, whereas economic development necessitates the formation of developmental policies and their enforcement or implementation. Economic growth is more applicable to developed nations, while economic development is more applicable to developing economies. Economic Development is the (long term) process by which an economy or a nation keeps improving upon its overall education level, health and well being of its population. It attributes to improvement in production volume owing to advancements in technology and human capital. It is also measure of qualitative improvement of people and their lives represented by Human Resource Development Index (HDI). It depends upon many factors (for computing qualitative measures like HDI and quantitative measures like per capita income, industrial development) such as job opportunities, technological advancements, standard of living, living conditions, per capita income, quality of life, improvement in self-esteem needs, GDP, industrial and infrastructural development etc.  Humans resources are active agents who exploit natural resources. For such an exploitation, they depend upon the skills and knowledge. These skills and knowledge comes from a systemic and long term process of investing in learning and educational resources. The nation can not grow  sustainably without growing its human resources both from the health and education perspective, before it goes to work to produce goods and services and earn for itself and for the nation. There is a need to develop human resources through distance education as it provides a parallel source of learning without disrupting the current stream of earnings. Distance education is becoming an integral part of the job. It improves the job performance through general and specific trainings. Access to knowledge is critical determinant of long term well being, happiness and is essential for individual development and freedom. Education provides the real freedom as it allows one to seek what they want to do and who they want to be. Distance education enabled by ICT can increase its reach to all the people (national or global level) across all the levels, at the convenience of learners and in their homes (for that matter, anywhere they want to be). It influences the health (especially for the professionals as adults or aging population who have health related issues that comes with the age)  as it removes the inconvenience and constraint of frequent or daily traveling for to be situated in one designated location in a traditional regulated classroom environment (the educational infrastructure is not readily available in each locality in vicinity or neighborhood) . At that age, they need more time for their own health and other elders at their care (social obligations which are even more for a working women). Time and place, both are big constraints for them. Distance education is an effective mode of keeping themselves up for the job irrespective of their current profession. It helps them keep improving their work efficiency and productivity and continue to be part of the changing economy or developmental trends. Distance Education helps you pace your education based on your time and environment. It is cost effective and one could acquire skills and knowledge from multiple sources. It is inclusive. In short,  it offers, freedom of time, place, pace, medium, access, age, class (rural or urban, gender or social inequalities), cost, prior knowledge or level of education, faculty (peer, industry, teacher) and curriculum. The pace factor addresses the drop-out  and repeat related economic and social issues normally present in the conventional system as a waste. Distance education needs national, centralized and autonomous bodies (on-campus and off-campus or open learning). Education is an investment in human capital  for nation development and growth. It increases employment, meet basic needs, reduce inequalities in wealth and income and raise the productivity of the poor. Human Resource Development (HRD) is not an isolated societal activity. It is an accumulation or formation of human capital through education (science and technology), health, nutrition and social welfare. It is about providing better education under improved or better health conditions. They are correlated subject matters. Education and social welfare are inter-linked. New knowledge is acquired to bring or raise the level of social welfare activities. Distance education reduces dropouts to insignificant levels, and provide recurring and continuing education with substantial vocationalisation of secondary education.  Education is an investment as increases the wealth and earning capacity of an individual and an enterprise. It improves human capital leading to increase in non-human or physical capital. The rate of physical capital formation grows as the rate of human capital forms or grows and they both grow as the capital or investments in the education system grows or becomes productive. It raises the work productivity and  job transitions (flexibility). These are both private and social returns from investment in education or for that matter distance education as well. And distance education is more economic to deliver and has wider reach or impact. Hence it has a huge role in human resource development from education perspective. In short, there is no better alternative today but to ride this wave of technology enabled learning medium or formats formally or informally. It is a cheaper, faster and better option to conventional system and provides higher private and social returns. It is easy to adapt for multiple learners and programs.  Education spurs economic growth which can be measured by two frameworks. (1) Growth Accounting Framework and (2) Endogenous Growth Framework. In case of the first, the earnings like per capita income

Six-Hats & TRIZ Thinking

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Six Hats is trying to solve a contradiction as a problem associated with group thinking: “A brain when subjected to thinking to solve a problem tends to go or wander in multiple directions, and in a group, these states tend to exist at the same time, hence causing chaos, conflicts, and arguments.” This is like having a physical contradiction that needs to be resolved i.e., simultaneous occurrences of different mental states or states of mind. This physical contradiction creates a confusion and hindrance to creative and collective problem solving. Physical contradictions such as the occurrences of multiple states (not limited to just two opposite or conflicting states such as good and bad, small, and large, etc.) at the same time (in this case, states of mind or directions of thinking – intuition, ideas, arguments, judgment, negative and positive feelings, questions to seek facts and opinions etc., i.e., representing random flow of thoughts as an outcome of left-brain activities and right brain activities) can be solved by using TRIZ as  separation in space, time, and circumstances as a solution. Six Hats in a way, follows this principle or approach as suggested in TRIZ (and can even do better) as follows: A: Separation in space: It is possible to divide in space the thoughts produced by thinking minds or the individuals themselves (forming multiple or smaller teams or groups that are manageable to co-exist and co-operate in a physical space – separating them into multiple and different teams). No two brains are therefore at odds in any team or space, and there may be a means to occasionally combine the outputs through a third party or moderator who might keep an eye on or supervise these teams or minds divided or separated in the space dimensions. These resemble discussion threads or teams that have been split up or formed depending on the various kinds of responses they augur well, such as those who support an idea being in one group and those who oppose it being in another. In this way, those who are a part of these groups will not debate or fight with one another; instead, they will only enhance their shared beliefs. When both teams have had enough time to think, they may be moderated to meet or come together in one or common place or space and have a debate under the direction of a third team that, rather than producing its own ideas, assists in the impartial organization and control of the ideas of others. This approach to group thinking as to how form or separate the teams by physical space has not been highlighted by Six Hats explicitly. It starts with a team as given. B: Separation in time dimension: In this case, the team members are asked to think in the same lines at any given point in time so that there are no conflicting thoughts. This is what Six-Hats uses as an underlying principle. People are asked to think about the problem from one direction, one state of mind, or one thought at a time. The concept of parallel thinking is well exploited in Six Hats. C: Separation by a condition: This is akin to sayings like “transition to the next mode of thinking” or “return to a particular state of mind or thinking if no thoughts emerge in a given state after being dedicated some time as a resource.” Fundamentally, it involves formulating an algorithm for group discussion under different circumstances and having a predetermined set of guidelines to direct the flow of debate when such a circumstance occurs. The ideas based on all three types of separations can help us overcome the group thinking issue (space, time, and conditions). To tackle the issue of physical contradiction, the classical Six Hats primarily applies the notion of separation in time. In short, TRIZ thinking seeks or pushes it for further improvement towards ideality. Six Hats uses the principle of separation in time to solve the physical contradiction problem (by not having multiple modes of thinking at the same time). Six Thinking Hats: White, Red, Black, Yellow, Green, and Blue. 1:   White Hat (controlled or best paired with a red hat or translates feelings of red hat; recommended as the first or sixth hat in a succession for promoting logic, reasoning, practical, analytical, objective, truth, precision, accuracy; unbiased, objective thinking orientation; concentrates on extracting facts, figures, reasons, opinions, and numbers). It helps understand the information available or missing in the group and how could that information be sourced or sourced from by framing right set of questions. 2:  Red Hat (controlled or best paired with a white hat; preferred as the second hat in a sequence for bringing up feelings like anger, fear, hatred, love, suspicion etc., intuitions, biases, prejudices, hunches, values, personal religion and belief, expressions, irrationalities, relevance, reactions, hypotheses, inconsistencies, background, inflexibilities etc.; thinking direction is to be predisposed, provocative; focuses on extracting emotions, sensibilities, tastes, and feelings) 3: Black Hat (controlled or best paired with a yellow hat; fourth as a preferred sequence; direction of thinking is to highlights aspects that are serious, cautious, legal, matters of safety, profits, ethics, policies, values, critical thinking, logic, strategy, care; focuses on extracting flaws, weaknesses, challenges, dangers, threats, risks, negative assessments, limitations, deficiencies, problems, expectations, alerts, criticality, comfort and discomforts, errors, incorrectness, unfairness, and obstacles). It focuses on what is wrong and what will not work. These are backed by what comes from red hat with associated feelings when facing failures or what people would do or say in case of problems and what impacts them on critical issues of failures. It is complemented by the thinking and thoughts under yellow hat. If black hat is for finding weakness and threats, yellow hat is for discussing about the opportunities and strengths and the two together complete the SWOT analysis. 4: Yellow Hat (controlled or best paired with a black hat; preferred as third in the sequence of thinking; direction of thinking is to be

Distance Education : Economic Perspective Part II

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Cost analysis of education as an economic good helps in (i) estimating resource requirements (ii) allocating budget or funds (iii) monitoring resource usage and identifying waste (iv) using cost functions for decision making  and (v) understanding inequalities in the cost of education across regions, gender, social class, ethnicity and income groups. Based on the purpose of decision making , there are different types of cost analysis methods or functions available to the evaluator: 1. Basic Cost Analysis: Basic cost is to know how much an educational initiatives or program could cost in total and what is the cost break-up by types of inputs or resources.  2. Cost-feasibility analysis: if it is necessary to understand whether the total cost is within the budget or budgetary constraints or not, such a basic cost analysis is called cost-feasibility analysis. In this the total cost is compared with source of financing the program. Note: The computation of benefits is not needed in basic cost and cost feasibility analysis. The focus is on the inputs or cost or input resources (total as well as distribution of cost over resources or categories of resources).  3. Cost-effectiveness analysis: Effectiveness is defined as performance on a single criterion or variable. If the cost measurement is used to compare one option with another (different educational program or methods to achieve the same and/or singular objective) designed and implemented to meet the same objective (single criterion or outcome measure for relative cost comparison), then its called cost-effectiveness analysis. It tells about the internal efficiency of the resources invested in a program or option. Cost-effectiveness first assesses whether the resources or inputs being used are able to deliver the required effect or impact or outcome or not. In this case, the effects or outputs or benefits are first identified in terms of the physical outcomes or units (not monetary terms or measures in different units) followed by the cost of input resources (monetary terms).  Then the cost of achieving these outcomes (set against a single objective)  are then compared with other alternative options to ascertain how cost effective a particular chosen option is (as compared to others). It mostly used for comparison of options designed for implementation to achieve single objective or having similar outcome goals or objectives (not for options or programs designed to deliver multiple or different objectives or criteria). By executing an option that is most cost effective (delivers all the objectives or outcomes as needed at the least cost), one can ensure optimal usage of resources.  4. Benefit-Cost Analysis: If the cost is analyzed to ascertain the benefits or returns or economic profitability, then this becomes benefit-cost analysis. One needs to identify various resources or inputs to education then classify them and measure their costs in monetary terms, Same way, all the output measures our effects or benefits need to be translated in terms of the monetary value (present monetary value of the the outcomes or outputs or benefits) . Unlike, cost effectiveness which measures the outcomes in terms of non-monetary physical units and compares it with the input cost, benefit-cost measures both the the benefits or outputs (it could be multiple and different outcomes or outputs) and the costs or inputs and finds the multiplier (ratio of benefit to cost) to know which program or option is more economically profitable. Benefit-cost analysis is needed to identify the option that has more benefits to deliver and less costs to incur. All benefits and costs are translated in monetary terms.  5. Cost-Utility Analysis: It is done to ascertain the value of the program or option. In this case, the program could have different outcomes or utilities (monetary and non-monetary). The programs are evaluated by the stakeholders, based on the utility score or value or outcomes as perceived relevant by them. There can be multiple different utilities and benefits which are perceived as important differently by different stakeholders. Unlike in the case of cost-effectiveness, where single output criteria is used to compare the alternative options, it uses multiple criteria (monetary and/or non-monetary) or outcomes and assigns utility value to them based on how the stakeholders perceive them. It is hence more subjective than other methods of cost analysis. It answers the following cost for each stakeholder or decision maker – Which program or option has the highest utility at the lowest cost? It does not focus on the cost-effectiveness i.e. it could have higher utility value for some stakeholders but low or no utility value for others. It relates the utility value of the various outcomes or outputs of the program or option to the cost of inputs or resources used to produce the outputs.  Cost of Education is sum total of all input resources and total social cost of education is sum of both the public (or institutional) and private (or individual) costs. The private costs are of two types – direct and indirect. Direct is what gets paid for the education (fees, accommodation, travel etc.) and indirect are hidden or invisible costs like foregone earning or opportunity costs (or investments done by others like parents’ time invested alongside with the student or salary not earned or foregone as the individual time is diverted/assigned to learning and not earning during the course of education). Real costs consider the opportunity cost as well to compute the total cost.  Cost incurred by the institution (educational body, state, government, private or mixed) is called the institutional cost or public cost of education (financed by the governmental institutions like taxes, loans or other sources of public revenues). Public costs are also of two types – direct and indirect. The direct costs include recurring and non-recurring i.e. fixed (one time fund for setting up infrastructure) and variable (for operations or running the programs). Fixed costs do not vary with any input or output variable like number of enrolments.  Recurring costs vary like with number of students (output variable) and number of teachers (input variable). Indirect public cost is lost opportunity to invest the same amount

Education As An Investment

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The concept of “economics of education” was born in 1960 with Theodore Schultz. The economics of education is linked with the labour (welfare, household, and finance) economics of a nation. The interest is in understanding the economics of education from four dominant aspects: (i) cost and benefits; (ii) planning (rate of return, manpower and social demand); (iii) effectiveness and efficiency; and (iv) sources of revenue. Public or social goods are non-rivalrous (enjoyed in common; consumption by one does not subtract from another’s consumption of that good) and non-excludable (meant and accessible for all). It includes clean air, water, a public park, national defense, etc. However, there is the concept of free riding. For instance, by non-excludability, it means that people who do not pay taxes also get to enjoy or consume (free-ride) the common or public goods in society Merit goods (originated by Richard Musgrave around 1957-59) are goods that an individual or society should have access to based on a concept of merit or benefit (instead of just willingness or ability to pay). It includes delivery of health services (like in the case of vaccinations, wherein appropriate criteria for prioritisation is needed to regulate the distribution of benefits, like those who are exposed to diseases or harm, would need to be delivered on a priority basis than others) or subsidised housing, etc. Education (depending upon its type) could also belong to this (merit) category of economic goods. Education is inherently non-rivalrous in nature. Having by one does not diminish another’s consumption of it. Private goods, on the contrary, are exclusive and rivalrous in nature. They belong to their respective owners or buyers, who have the right to consume them (and exclude others from their consumption). For example., toys, clothes, food, cars etc.  Education is also a private good, i.e., like food for consumption, i.e., it is sold and excludes others who have not bought it to benefit from its consumption. Similarly, education is both an investment (benefits accrue to society or people beyond those who consume or acquire it, supports further production of goods, called capital goods) and a consumption (the acquirer, an individual or community, directly or exclusively reaps the benefits, and once it is consumed, it can not be transferred or transformed further).  Capital goods are man-made objects like plants, machines, tools, and equipment that support further production of goods. Education is an economic good for consumption as well as an investment for both individuals and societies. There is no single approach to ascertain the proportion in which education contributes as an investment and as consumption (for the individual or society).  In primary education, the consumption component is much higher than the investment component. In secondary education, the consumption component is on par with the investment component. In higher education, the investment component is much higher than the investment component. Whether education serves the purpose of consumption or investment, it needs to be analysed and analysed both at an individual and societal level. Goods in economics can be described based on the purpose they serve : consumption and/or investment. Education falls under both these categories. It is an investment activity as it increases the productivity of labour and the lifetime earning potential (wages and wealth) of individuals by way of imparting knowledge and skills. It builds human capital that can innovate and deliver new goods and services. However, unlike physical capital (plants or machines), human capital is built when individuals also invest their own time and resources into it, as well. In the case of an employer-employee relationship aimed at building human capital, the employer would like to invest in those training or learning competencies that are “specific” to the firm. While employees need to invest in education to build “general” training or  competencies (applicable across the firms or employers). The rate of return (individual/private or societal/public) equates to the present value of the costs incurred in education to the present value of additional or future lifetime earnings (income, benefits) attributable to education. This is like comparing the cost incurred and the income stream generated by any other capital asset. In the case of societal or public investments, these are the overall state or national level investments made in the education sector (unlike in the case of private or individual investment). Hence, one could distinguish the private rate of return (cost incurred or earnings foregone and income earned after paying taxes or non-income benefit gained related to an individual’s investment of time and resources in education) from the social rate of return (cost incurred by the state or society on building and running educational infrastructure at large and gross earnings made before taxes or deductions as benefits). Since the costs are higher in public or societal education, the returns are comparatively lower when compared to the private rate of return. Human Capital: Education when considered as an investment in human resources, forms Human Capital for the economy. Unlike Physical Capital, here the humans need to also transform themselves and invest their own time and resources to become better by each day. General training or learning is typically the target for individual investments in themselves as they cut across employers and employers see this as additional cost (no additional benefit). Specific trainings are under the purview of institutions and they invest in organizing them for specific employees (additional cost with matching additional benefits). Specific trainings are seen as additional cost without additional benefits by the employees and hence employers have to invest in such interventions by themselves. Rate of return: Since education is an investment to form Human Capital, the concept of rate of return is applicable to it too. It has four aspects : private or individual rate of return, social or public rate of return, adjustments like anticipated mortality, earnings, taxes, unemployment and innate ability (realistic estimations and projections of cost and benefits) and earning functions (methods to measure and quantify the benefits or earnings) like wages, working hours, education level and associated earnings etc. Earnings

Inventive Principles

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Inventive Principles are a key concept within TRIZ (Theory of Inventive Problem Solving), a systematic problem-solving methodology developed by Russian inventor and scientist Genrich Altshuller. Altshuller, along with his colleagues, analyzed a vast number of patents to identify patterns and commonalities in the inventive solutions. From this analysis, they derived a set of Inventive Principles that could be applied to solve problems and generate creative solutions. TRIZ is based on the idea that there are universal principles and patterns that underlie inventive solutions across different domains and industries. By understanding and applying these principles, innovators can overcome challenges and create more efficient, effective, and elegant solutions to problems. The Inventive Principles serve as a set of guidelines or heuristics that help individuals think systematically about how to approach and solve problems.  Genrich Altshuller initially identified 40 Inventive Principles in TRIZ. These principles provided a set of guidelines or heuristics for approaching and solving problems. Over time, as TRIZ evolved and more insights were gained from the analysis of inventive solutions, the list of Inventive Principles expanded. The additional principles were meant to offer a more comprehensive set of strategies for addressing a wider range of problems. The total number of principles in later different versions of TRIZ, as being practiced by its practitioners, is assumed to have increased to 76 or even more. To a great extent, these are either extensions of original principles or off-shoots (like sub-principles or defined as 76 inventive standards) or varied interpretation and granular categorization (context sensitive). However, each principle or inventive standard represents a general solution approach that has proven effective in various inventive situations. The goal of TRIZ and its Inventive Principles is to accelerate the problem-solving process by leveraging the collective knowledge embedded in patents and inventive solutions. It encourages users to look beyond traditional problem-solving methods and consider innovative, often counterintuitive approaches. Some of the key aspects of Inventive Principles in TRIZ include: Contradictions: TRIZ emphasizes resolving inherent contradictions within a system to achieve improvements. These contradictions often involve conflicting requirements or characteristics that must be addressed simultaneously. Ideality: Striving for an ideal solution, where all desirable functions are present without any drawbacks, is a central concept. Inventors are encouraged to move toward an ideal state. Patterns of Evolution: TRIZ identifies common patterns of technological evolution and innovation. Understanding these patterns can guide inventors in predicting future developments. 40 Principles: The original 40 Inventive Principles provide specific guidance on how to overcome contradictions and improve systems. Each principle is associated with a general approach or technique. Su-Field Analysis: TRIZ employs Su-Field Analysis, a method for analyzing the relationships between a system (Su), the object being acted upon (Field), and the action or force applied.  Overall, the Inventive Principles in TRIZ provide a structured framework for problem-solving, fostering creativity and innovation by drawing on the accumulated knowledge of inventive solutions from diverse fields. TRIZ research originally uncovered  40 inventive strategies or principles capable of challenging and eliminating contradictions and conflicts. These principles are most effectively used as brainstorm focus devices – with users trying to make connections between their situation and the recommended directions suggested by the principles. The 40 principles are described below but before that there are certain axioms related to them as follows: (1) Single principle may be valid for eliminating more than one contradiction (2) A contradiction may be resolved using more than one principle (3) There is no direct link between an invention and the principles (4) An invention has an application context (which determines the primary and secondary functions), state of evolution, set of ideality values (for each primary function at each state of evolution) and the underlying construction (i.e., resources) to deliver the primary function (5) Each invention evolves over a period denoted by its state of evolution (based on the change in the ideality value for a primary function (not just mere modification or reconstruction of the invention) (6) An invention has primary and secondary functional objectives in each application context, and it is the application context that decides which functions (out of many being delivered) constitutes the primary functional objective for the invention (7) An invention may have one or more contradictions dictated by its construction (which are application context sensitive) (8) An invention may use one or more principles to resolve the same contradiction (9) It is highly probable that a contradiction elimination thinking process using more than one valid principle may dictate (or leads to or satisfies) the same construction for the invention (10) Mostly the application context dictates the primary function, and it is pre-determined or known to the inventor prior to the construction of the invention (introduction of universality is usually an after thought to improve the ideality laterally) (11) What contradictions may emerge from the construction of invention strongly depend upon the application context and the changing conditions around it (12) What states of evolution may emerge or become feasible strongly depend upon the changes in the network of value dictated or determined by the system (or construction of invention) hierarchy? (13) It is the application context and/or the state of evolution that determine the potential principles to serve as trigger to solve problems or evolve the invention by reconstruction (14) A minimal construction or reconstruction is the underlying ideality objective for any invention PART 1 Inventive Principles 1. Segmentation : Divide an object or system into independent parts. 2. Taking Out or Extraction or Isolation: Remove or separate a particular part or property from an object or system.  3. Local Quality: Change an object or system’s structure to have different properties in different places.  4. Asymmetry: Change the shape or properties of an object or system to make it more functional.  5. Merging or Consolidation: Combine two or more objects or systems to improve their functionality.  6. Universality: Make a part or object perform multiple functions.   7. Nested Doll or Nesting: Place one object inside another or embed systems within each other.  8. Anti-weight: Compensate for the weight of an object or system by adding a counterweight.  9. Prior or Preliminary Counteraction (Anti-Action): Counteract harmful factors before they can cause damage. 10. Prior or Preliminary Action: Use the available energy in an object or system before it is needed.  11. Beforehand Cushioning

Distance Education : Economic Perspective Part i

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In what different ways ‘cost’ is defined in distance education ? What is marginal and average costs, and fixed and variable costs in distance education? Managing costs in distance education needs an understanding of the types of costs incurred as well as the cost functions, i.e., what are the inputs and output variables and methods of computing these costs. In short, just like any other process, the focus on cost effectiveness and cost efficiency is a must, as lowering the cost and increasing the benefits improves the value of the process and its outcomes.  Cost is a mathematical function, and in order to be precise, it needs to consider all the inputs that contribute to the cost of delivering distance education. Distance education is about scale, and hence, it should help understand how the output or the cost gets impacted by the inputs, such as the number of learners enrolled. In short, a measure like “economies of scale” is a good point of view to have. Education is a significant economic expenditure (around 3.5% of India’s GNP), and it is undoubtedly a significant proportion of national expenditure, perhaps second only to national defense. This makes analysis of educational costs for efficiency and effectiveness all the more necessary to understand where the money is coming from and how well it is being spent. For instance, are the right educational resources being allocated in the right sectors or regions for securing growth; or what factors are major ones in terms of influencing these costs; or what are the critical sources of funds that can be tapped, etc.? Consider the distance education function as an outcome of a process. Just like any other process, it has its own inputs and outputs. Educational institutes, just like any other firm, transform these inputs into outputs and, in this process, add value to the customer or consumer of their products and services (satisfying the need for new cognitive abilities of the buyer or customer). Outputs are the courses delivered and students transformed (gaining new knowledge and/or skills) as consumers of these courses (services, products). The production of these courses involves human resources like faculty members and non-human resources like ICT, Printing Machinery, Stationary Material, Office or Workplace Building/Infrastructure etc. Hence, the educational institutions have their own trade-offs in terms of acquiring these resources at a monetary value instead of making expenditure for other alternatives (for different products or goods i.e. alternative transformation opportunities). So, one of the ways to look at the cost of distance education is to look at it from the lens of various activities that are performed and do activity-based costing. It could be logically summed up around clusters of activities (activity centers). The cost of these activity centres, when added, could provide the total cost. Having activity centres helps understand how these activities contribute to the cost and how they could be made more efficient and effective. The other perspective is to look at the overall cost with its components split as direct or indirect, i.e., fixed and variable costs. Another useful perspective is to look at the cost as an average and marginal cost. Let’s first look at these activity centers. There are four of them: course design, course development, course delivery, and course evaluation. Course Design: This starts with a survey to establish the need for having a course in the first place. In addition, one can study the reports already published on the subject. It gives information about the demand and supply gap. For an educational institute, it is about understanding the needs of the nation by each state or region and the people or communities (and their demands or requirements) to be addressed. Eventually, the course needs to be defined in terms of various aspects of consideration like title, objectives, target groups, entry criteria, availability of experts to develop learning resources in different digital and non-digital formats, modality of the programme development and delivery, possible sources of funding for the development of such a programme and the fees to be charged from the learners or students, etc. Getting these aspects of consideration in place (i.e. performing activities associated with the course design activity-center), need time and efforts of the faculty members which means incurring expenses whether paid as a salary to them or honorarium to the experts and other expenses like procuring research reports or conducting market surveys etc.  Course Development: This activity centre involved efforts and time spent on developing the components of the course like the programme handbook, student programme guide, course modules and units, credit hours for each, technology for digital content for distribution, student activities and practicum, student assessments and assignments, learning support system, etc. All these activities need time and cost allocation for developing the learning resources and environment. There are various course development models and also the mechanisms of media mix—supplementary, complementary, and integrated. Course Delivery: Once the course is developed (certificate, diploma, or degree), it needs to be delivered. It involves many activities like advertising the course and marketing it over the social media channels, enrolling the students into batches, managing payments (recurring or one-time or referral discount or credits), giving them access to the content digitally or shipping printed materials, organising online and offline sessions at study centers, faculty and industry expert lectures and demonstrations, communications and reminders for study and assessments (including announcements and notification in bulk over mobile applications and SMS etc.), web-based support and counselling or mentoring sessions, call centre or chat or email or discussion board support for learners, assessments and grading and publishing scores and certifications. Finally, managing them as alumni. All these activities are pertaining to the delivery of the course and are the activities to be considered for costing purposes. Course Evaluation: Once the programme is delivered or being delivered, there are quality monitoring activities to understand where the gaps are in terms of meeting the expectations of the stakeholders and the learning outcomes or objectives. These gaps or issues or suggestions,

Instructional Systems

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1. Introduction: In a natural environment, the components interact with each other in an informal and unorganized manner leading to unpredictable or unspecified learning.  2. Instructions: In a controlled environment with predefined learning objectives, governed under a set of clearly defined instructions (guidelines or set of directives for performing activities or following procedures to achieve a predefined goal) can help us lead to attaining predictable learning outcomes. By instructions, we mean, directed teaching efforts (to build an organized learning process i.e. controlled environment) of the teacher to impart the required knowledge and experiences to the learners. Teaching and Instruction as terms could be found being used interchangeably but Instruction is more apt when it comes to defining the directed learning process. 3. Instructional System: Components inter-operating to deliver a desired function predictably, repeatedly and consistently in terms of the outcomes and performance is called a system. By Instructional System, it means components like learning process objectives, planning, implementation and testing of the learning outcomes. Instructions coded (automated or manually) when followed, guide the human interactions with an organized environment to achieve certain objectives (or behavioral changes). In other words, students following the instructions would undergo behavioral changes (difference between entry behaviors and terminal behaviors). They are expected to achieve certain terminal behaviors (expected terminal behaviors). The difference between actual and expected terminal behaviors is a measure of effectiveness of the learning process and such a measurement serves the purpose of providing the feedback. 4. Instructional Systems (IS) Design (ISD): ISD is a four stage design process : [A] Objectivizing (objectives are specified in terms of set of learning outcomes in the direction of overall goal/education/IS and an instructor or designer identifies the objectives needed to develop the procedures for the IS i.e. what needs to be achieved at the end of the teaching or learning process as an outcome i.e. terminal behaviors/change), [B] Planning, [C] Implementing & [D] Testing.  [B] Planning and Implementing stages put together constitute the core part of the process (also referred collectively as “designing the system” ). Planning (also referred as “analyzing the system requirements”) involves having understood the objectives, arriving at alternative or  all possible paths or educational methods or means or procedures (with known merits, demerits, limitations or constraints) to achieve these identified objectives and designated resources needed for these alternative paths or solutions, in order to choose or select the best possible alternative as a learning process or solution (given the set objectives).  It needs collective information about the potential alternative or solutions or methods and their merits and demerits and resources (attached costs) etc. It needs to consider the controlled learning environment and various variables that can impact its performance – (i) content that needs to meet the learning goal or outcomes (ii) facilities, materials, human activities and efforts, equipment, media, ICT etc. that needs to put/keep the learning environment in motion/operation (iii) factors as constraints related to time, autonomy of learner/teacher, cost etc. leading to trade-offs and related decisions (iv) learner characteristics or persona, number of learners, groups, entry behaviors, prior knowledge or academics, experience, personal and professional backgrounds, aspirations, learning style, studying skills and ability or learning rate etc.). Objectives and resources must get identified before designing or implementing the IS. [C] Implementation (also referred in nutshell as “designing the IS”) comes after objectives, procedures and resources needed are clearly identified. The design of IS must be instructive. IS designed should have inter-operative components working effectively (assisting each other) for the achievement of learning outcomes, objectives and eventual goal. It (IS Designed) should also operate with compatibilities with other IS external to the environment. It puts the plan into action to deliver the IS that can be used to execute multiple iterations of the learning process. Reviewing the implementation as per the plan (selected or chosen solution) is the responsibility of the designer or instructor. Designer or reviewer has to check whether each of the set objectives are met by the IS being planned and implemented (designed) or not, at each phase of the designing (planning and implementation) process .  ISD process improves the quality of the instructions by addressing various assumptions inherent in the instruction system – (i) no two learners are alike (entry behaviors  are different – prior knowledge/experience, learning style, level of motivation, learning ability or rate etc., ). (ii) each educational method or procedure has  its own set of merits and demerits or defects i.e. they differ in terms of their what objectives they can help achieve/deliver. In other words, level of objectives define what educational methods to be selected to build an instructional system. (iii) pre-requisites and practice (in case of a complex learning process or activities for higher learning objectives or outcomes) can help increase the level of motivation and prevent from degrading or lowering the learning objectives. (iv) exposing learners to wide range of subjects, ideas, attitudes etc., should not be construed as equivalent to delivering relevant content and related skills and competencies. In other words, the act of increasing the quantity does not necessarily means, it is a substitute for increasing the quality of the learning process. In other words, simply adding more resources or components in the system does not mean it will yield more or better outcomes. Designing or implementing IS needs to incorporate leaner’s characteristics and instructional media, techniques and materials available for them for in classroom or face to face or self learning environments – (i) individual differences (ii) readiness (iii) motivation and (iv) study conditions.  Based on the learner characteristics, learner support systems have to be designed.  In terms of instructional techniques and media, these are primarily of four types (i) Leaner centered – personalized systems of instructions, flexi-study, distance learning, progammed learning, computer assisted learning and individual projects (ii) group centered – tutorial, seminar, group discussion, group project (iii) teacher centered – lecture method, demonstration method and (iv) experience centered – discovery learning, learner centered instructions, simulation techniques, role play and case study techniques.  [D] Testing (also referred as ”

Composite Material

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40: COMPOSITE MATERIAL: (A) Replace homogeneous or uniform materials (or objects or systems) with composite (multiple) materials. EXAMPLE: Aircraft Structures like Wings to provide high strength at low weight, Composite epoxy resin/carbon fiber golf club shafts, Fiberglass surfboards, Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic (FRP) applications like boat hulls, automobile components, aircraft parts, and sports equipment. Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) applications like aerospace components, high-performance sports equipment, automotive parts. Metal Matrix Composites (MMC) applications like  automotive components, electronic packaging, aerospace structures. Natural Fiber Composites applications like automotive interiors, construction materials, packaging. Concrete with Fiber Reinforcement applications like building construction, infrastructure repair. SYNONYMS: Composite, Composite Structure, Composite System, Composite Substance, Hybrid Material, Compound Material, Mixed Material, Blended Material, Multimaterial, Multiphase Material ACB: A composite material is a material made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different physical or chemical properties that, when combined, produce a material with characteristics different from the individual components. The combination of these materials allows for the enhancement of specific properties, making composites versatile and suitable for various applications. It can be a polymer, metal, ceramic, or another type of material as a matrix. The reinforcement materials are embedded within the matrix to enhance specific properties of the composite. Reinforcement materials can be fibers, particles, or other structures. Common types of reinforcement include fiberglass, carbon fiber, aramid (such as Kevlar), and various types of particles.  The combination of matrix and reinforcement results in a material that often exhibits improved strength, stiffness, durability, and other desirable properties compared to the individual components. The specific characteristics of a composite material depend on the choice of matrix, reinforcement, and their relative proportions. Composite materials are widely used in various industries due to their versatility and the ability to tailor their properties for specific applications. The design flexibility and performance improvements offered by composites make them valuable in sectors such as aerospace, automotive, construction, sports and recreation, and more. Both composite materials and alloys offer tailored properties for specific applications, composites involve the combination of distinct materials to create a new material with enhanced properties, and alloys consist of a homogeneous mixture of different elements at the atomic level. Shape memory effects are unique to certain alloys, particularly shape memory alloys, where reversible changes in shape or size occur in response to temperature variations. Composite materials and alloys are both engineered materials with specific properties tailored for particular applications, but they differ in composition, structure, and behavior:  Composite Materials: Composite materials are composed of two or more distinct materials (reinforcement and matrix) combined to create a new material with enhanced properties. The components remain separate and retain their individual characteristics. Examples include fiberglass (glass fibers in a polymer matrix) and carbon fiber composites (carbon fibers in a polymer matrix). Composites often exhibit synergistic properties such as high strength-to-weight ratio, corrosion resistance, and tailored electrical or thermal conductivity. Alloys: Alloys are homogeneous mixtures of two or more metallic elements or a metal and a non-metal. In alloys, the atoms of different elements are intermixed at the atomic level, resulting in a single-phase solid solution. Alloys can exhibit a wide range of properties depending on the composition, including improved strength, hardness, corrosion resistance, and thermal conductivity. Examples include steel (iron-carbon alloy) and brass (copper-zinc alloy). Unlike composites, alloys do not have distinct reinforcement and matrix phases; instead, they form a single, uniform microstructure. By replacing homogeneous materials with composite ones, engineers can tailor the properties of the materials to meet specific application requirements more precisely. Composite materials offer advantages such as enhanced strength, durability, lightweight, and multifunctionality, making them valuable for a wide range of industrial, automotive, aerospace, and consumer product applications. Replacing homogeneous (uniform) materials with composite ones involves using materials that consist of two or more distinct components with different properties. These components can have the same or different aggregate states, meaning they can be in solid, liquid, or gas phases. Composite materials are engineered to achieve specific performance characteristics that may not be attainable with homogeneous materials alone:  Identify Properties Needed: Determine the desired properties for the application. This could include mechanical strength, thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity, or other specific requirements. Select Components: Choose the components for the composite material based on their individual properties and how they will contribute to the desired characteristics of the composite. These components can be materials with different aggregate states, such as solid fillers in a liquid matrix or gas bubbles dispersed in a solid matrix. Design Composite Structure: Decide on the structure and arrangement of the components within the composite material. This may involve dispersing solid particles, fibers, or flakes within a matrix material, or creating layered structures with alternating layers of different materials. Optimize Composition: Experiment with different compositions and ratios of the components to achieve the desired balance of properties. This may involve adjusting the concentration, size, shape, or orientation of the components within the composite.  Manufacture Composite: Produce the composite material using appropriate manufacturing techniques, such as casting, molding, extrusion, or additive manufacturing methods like 3D printing. Ensure proper mixing and dispersion of the components to achieve uniformity and consistency in the final product. Test and Evaluate: Perform testing and evaluation to assess the performance of the composite material under various conditions. This may include mechanical testing, thermal analysis, electrical conductivity measurements, or other relevant tests to verify that the composite meets the required specifications. Iterate and Refine: Based on the test results, iterate on the design and composition of the composite material as needed to optimize its performance. This may involve making adjustments to the component materials, their proportions, or the manufacturing process to achieve the desired properties more effectively. This inventive principle suggests using composite materials to improve the characteristics of an object instead of using a single homogeneous material for a given component or structure.  The key idea behind  is to create a material that possesses the desired combination of properties, such as strength, flexibility, durability, weight or other desirable characteristics.. By carefully selecting and combining different materials, engineers and designers can tailor the characteristics of the composite material to meet specific requirements.  At an abstract level, this principle involves the idea of enhancing system performance by combining

Inert Environment

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39: INERT ENVIRONMENT (A) Replace a normal environment with an inert one (B) Introduce a neutral substance or inert additives into an object (or system) or its environment (C) Carry out process (partially or fully)  in a neutral or natural or calm or non-distractive or unbiased (free from undesired elements) environment. EXAMPLE : Electric Bulbs (using Argon), Sound Absorbing Panels, Dampers, using fire retarding substances in or around objects prone to fire, Increasing the volume of powdered detergent by adding inert ingredients, Electron-beam welding in vacuum, Vacuum Packing SYNONYMS: Calm Environment, Inert Atmosphere, Design for Environmental Sustenance ACB: “Inert Environment” principle refers to the concept of isolating a system or component from its external environment, particularly from factors that might negatively affect its performance or functionality. The term “inert” in this context implies an environment that does not introduce unwanted or disruptive elements into the system. The principle suggests creating conditions where a system or component is shielded or isolated from external influences that could have a detrimental impact. This could include protection from extreme temperatures, corrosive substances, electromagnetic interference, and other harmful factors. For Instance:  Traditional incandescent light bulbs typically contain a filament made of tungsten enclosed in a glass bulb filled with an inert gas. The inert gas used in incandescent bulbs is usually argon. The purpose of the inert gas is to slow down the evaporation of the tungsten filament and extend the lifespan of the bulb. The filament in incandescent bulbs is made of tungsten. When the bulb is turned on, the filament heats up due to the flow of electric current. As the tungsten filament heats up, it becomes incandescent, emitting visible light. However, tungsten has a high melting point, and under normal conditions, it would evaporate quickly. To address the evaporation issue, the bulb is filled with an inert gas, commonly argon. Argon is chemically inert, meaning it doesn’t readily react with other elements, and it helps slow down the evaporation of the tungsten filament. The presence of the inert gas helps to maintain the integrity of the tungsten filament, allowing the incandescent bulb to have a longer lifespan compared to a vacuum-sealed bulb. By introducing neutral substances or additives into objects, engineers and designers can enhance their properties, protect them from environmental factors, and extend their lifespan, improving their overall performance and durability. Introducing a neutral substance or additives into an object involves incorporating inert, protective, or antioxidant coatings or additives to enhance the object’s properties or protect it from external factors. Here’s how this process works:  Identify Object and Requirements: Determine the object or material that requires enhancement or protection and identify the specific requirements or challenges it faces. This could include factors such as corrosion, oxidation, wear and tear, or exposure to harsh environments. Select Neutral Substance or Additives: Choose neutral substances or additives that are compatible with the object’s composition and properties, as well as with the desired application requirements. Examples include inert gases (such as nitrogen or argon), protective coatings (such as polymer coatings or metal plating), or antioxidant additives (such as stabilizers or inhibitors). Design Application Method: Determine the most suitable method for applying the chosen substance or additives to the object. This could involve techniques such as spraying, dipping, brushing, or incorporating additives during manufacturing processes. Apply Coatings or Additives: Apply the selected coatings or additives to the object according to the chosen application method. Ensure thorough coverage and adherence to the object’s surface to achieve the desired level of protection or enhancement. Monitor Performance: Monitor the performance of the object over time to assess the effectiveness of the applied coatings or additives. This may involve conducting tests, inspections, or evaluations to measure factors such as corrosion resistance, oxidation resistance, wear resistance, or other relevant properties. Iterate and Improve: Based on the performance evaluation, make any necessary adjustments or improvements to the coating or additive formulation, application method, or other factors to optimize the object’s performance and durability. Examples of how this principle can be applied include: Protective Coatings: Applying a polymer coating to metal surfaces to prevent corrosion or oxidation, such as using epoxy coatings on steel structures exposed to harsh environments. Inert Gas Atmospheres: Introducing inert gases, such as nitrogen or argon, into storage containers or packaging to displace oxygen and prevent oxidation or spoilage of sensitive materials or products. Antioxidant Additives: Incorporating antioxidant additives into plastics, polymers, or lubricants to inhibit degradation caused by exposure to heat, light, or oxygen, prolonging their lifespan and performance. Creating an inert environment is essential in situations where the presence of reactive elements could lead to product degradation, safety hazards, or interference with desired processes. Inert atmospheres are carefully controlled to maintain stability and prevent chemical reactions that could impact the quality or integrity of materials.An inert environment refers to a space or atmosphere that lacks chemically reactive elements or substances. In such an environment, the presence of reactive gases or elements is minimized or entirely eliminated to prevent undesired chemical reactions. The term “inert” is used to describe substances or environments that do not readily react with other substances under normal conditions. An inert environment typically involves the absence or minimal presence of chemically reactive gases such as oxygen, which is known to support combustion and oxidation reactions. The goal of creating an inert environment is to prevent or minimize undesired chemical reactions. This is particularly important in situations where reactive substances need to be protected or where specific processes require a controlled and stable environment.  Inert gases, such as nitrogen, argon, and helium, are commonly used to create inert atmospheres. These gases are chemically stable and do not readily react with other substances under normal conditions. In the food packaging industry, inert environments are created using gases like nitrogen or carbon dioxide to extend the shelf life of perishable goods by reducing oxidation and spoilage. Inert gases such as argon are used in welding to prevent oxidation of metals during the welding process. Some chemical reactions require inert environments to ensure the purity of the reaction and prevent unintended side reactions. In the production of electronic

Thermal Expansion

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37: THERMAL EXPANSION  (A) Use expansion or contraction of material by changing its temperature (as in transformation of properties) (B) Use various materials with different coefficient of thermal expansion transformation of properties ( multiple or composite material with relative difference in thermal or desired or required properties). EXAMPLE:  Shape Memory Alloys, Bi-metallic Strips (in Thermostats) SYNONYMS: Relative Change ACB:  The principle refers to the utilization of the phenomenon of thermal expansion or contraction to improve a system or solve a problem. Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change its shape, area, and volume in response to a change in temperature. This principle suggests taking advantage of temperature-induced changes in the dimensions of materials. When temperature increases, most materials expand, and when it decreases, they contract. Systems that can automatically adjust to changes in temperature without external intervention represent an application of the “Thermal Expansion” principle. Such self-adjusting mechanisms can contribute to improved reliability and performance. Bimetallic strips, consisting of two different metals with different coefficients of thermal expansion, are a common example of applying this principle. When heated or cooled, these strips bend due to the uneven expansion or contraction of the metals, and this bending can be harnessed for various purposes, such as in thermostats. The choice of materials with specific thermal expansion properties can be crucial in the application of this principle. Selecting materials that expand or contract in a predictable and controlled manner can contribute to the overall effectiveness of a design.   Composite materials and alloys are both engineered materials with specific properties tailored for particular applications. Use of expansion or contraction of materials by changing their temperature, along with shape memory effects in metals, are phenomena related to the material’s ability to undergo reversible changes in shape or size in response to external stimuli, such as temperature variations.  Shape Memory Effect in Metals: Shape memory alloys (SMAs) are metallic materials that exhibit a unique property known as the shape memory effect (SME). This effect allows them to “remember” their original shape and recover it after deformation when subjected to specific temperature changes. SMAs typically have two stable phases: austenite (high-temperature phase) and martensite (low-temperature phase). By undergoing a reversible phase transformation between these phases, SMAs can exhibit significant changes in shape or size in response to temperature variations. Expansion/Contraction of Materials with Temperature Changes: Many materials, including metals, polymers, and ceramics, undergo expansion or contraction when their temperature changes. This behavior is governed by the material’s coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE), which describes how much the material’s dimensions change per degree of temperature change. When heated, most materials expand due to increased molecular vibrations, while cooling leads to contraction as molecular motion decreases. In shape memory alloys, the reversible phase transformation between austenite and martensite phases is accompanied by significant changes in volume and shape. Heating the SMA above a certain temperature (called the transformation temperature or transition temperature) triggers the phase transformation from martensite to austenite, causing the material to revert to its original shape (shape memory effect). Conversely, cooling the SMA below the transition temperature induces the martensitic phase transformation, allowing the material to be easily deformed into a new shape. When heated again, the SMA returns to its original shape. Thermal properties play a significant role in the sealing of plastics, especially in processes like heat sealing, ultrasonic welding, and induction sealing. These methods utilize heat to create a secure bond between plastic materials, either to form a package or to join plastic components. Heat sealing involves applying heat to a specific area of plastic film or sheet to create a bond. This is commonly used in packaging applications. Heat is applied to raise the temperature of the plastic above its melting point, allowing it to flow and form a seal upon cooling. Efficient heat transfer is crucial to ensure uniform sealing across the material. Ultrasonic welding uses high-frequency vibrations to create friction and heat between plastic parts, causing them to melt and fuse together.  Induction sealing involves using electromagnetic induction to heat a metal foil liner in a plastic cap. The heated foil bonds with the container’s neck, providing a secure seal. Hot bar sealing, also known as impulse sealing, uses a heated bar or element to weld two layers of plastic together. It is commonly used in the production of bags and pouches. Thermal impulse sealing combines heat and pressure to seal thermoplastic materials. It is commonly used for packaging and bag sealing. Laser sealing utilizes a laser beam to heat and melt specific areas of plastic, creating a bond. This is often used in precision applications. Thermal properties play a crucial role in laminations, where layers of materials are bonded together to create a composite structure. Laminations are commonly used in various industries, including packaging, construction, electronics, and manufacturing. Understanding and controlling thermal properties are essential for achieving strong bonds, ensuring product integrity, and meeting specific performance requirements. Heat lamination involves applying heat and pressure to layers of materials, typically with an adhesive layer, to create a bond. Cold lamination uses pressure-sensitive adhesives that do not require heat for activation. It is often used for temperature-sensitive materials. Hot melt lamination involves applying a thermoplastic adhesive in a molten state between layers of materials. Thermal film lamination uses a heat-activated film or foil applied to the substrate. The film bonds to the material when heat and pressure are applied. Vacuum lamination involves using vacuum pressure to press layers of materials together, often with the application of heat and/or adhesives. Resin infusion lamination involves infusing a resin into a fibrous reinforcement material to create a composite structure. Photonic curing involves using intense light, typically from a high-power flash lamp, to cure inks or coatings on flexible substrates.  In printing, thermal laminating films are often used to protect and enhance printed materials. These films are heat-activated and adhere to the surface of the printed material. These examples demonstrate how thermal expansion is utilized in various systems, leveraging materials with different coefficients of thermal expansion to achieve specific transformations or functionalities based on temperature variations: Refrigeration and air conditioning systems use thermal expansion