A unit of measurement is a specific size of a quantity, officially defined by convention or law, serving as a standard for measuring the same kind of quantity. Other quantities of the same kind can be expressed as multiples of this unit. For example, in the International System of Units (SI), the meter (m) is a unit of length representing a predetermined length, and “10 meters” means 10 times that length. Throughout history, various systems of units were prevalent, but the modern global standard is the SI, managed by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM). Weights and measures in trade are often regulated by governments to ensure fairness, and metrology, the science of developing accepted units, plays a vital role.
In physics, clear definitions of units are essential for reproducibility of results. The scientific method relies on standardized units, with scientific systems evolving from commercial measures. Different fields, such as science, medicine, and engineering, use specialized units beyond everyday measurements, aiding researchers in problem-solving and dimensional analysis. In the social sciences, there are no standardized units, and the theory and practice of measurement are explored in psychometrics and the theory of conjoint measurement. Overall, units of measurement are integral to human endeavors, ensuring consistency, fairness, and precision in diverse fields.
A unit of measurement is a standardized quantity representing a physical property, serving as a basis for expressing various quantities of that property. These units have been crucial tools since early human history, with primitive societies requiring basic measures for tasks like constructing dwellings, making clothing, and bartering goods. The earliest uniform systems of measurement emerged in the 4th and 3rd millennia BC among ancient Mesopotamian, Egyptian, and Indus Valley civilizations. References to weights and measures are found in historical texts, including the Bible, emphasizing honesty and fair measures.
The Magna Carta of 1215 included provisions for standardized measures in England. In the 21st century, various unit systems, such as the United States Customary System, the Imperial System, and the International System (SI), are in use globally. Notably, the United States has not fully adopted the metric system. Efforts to establish a universally accepted unit system began in 1790 with the French Academy of Sciences. The metric system, a successor to this initiative, gained widespread acceptance with the signing of The Metric Convention Treaty in 1875. The current International System of Units (SI) was established in 1954. Presently, the United States utilizes both the SI and the US Customary system.
The use of a single unit of measurement for various quantities has limitations, especially when dealing with vastly different scales, such as measuring distances between cities and the length of a needle. To address this, unit prefixes are employed to make large numbers or small fractions more manageable. Historically, different units for distinct purposes developed independently. However, as the need to relate these units arose, systems of measurement emerged, defining units and establishing rules for their interrelation. Scientific progress led to the need for consistency in measuring various quantities like length, weight, and volume.
Different countries have adopted various systems of units, including the CGS system, FPS system, MKS system, and the widely accepted International System of Units (SI). The base SI units, such as the second, meter, kilogram, ampere, kelvin, mole, and candela, form the foundation from which all other SI units can be derived. Modern systems of measurement include the metric system, the imperial system, and United States customary units, each with its own set of standardized units and conventions. The SI system stands out as the most globally recognized and accepted system of units.
Units are essential for communicating values of physical quantities. For instance, conveying a specific length without a unit of measurement is impractical, as a length needs a reference to make sense of the given value. However, not all quantities require individual units. Using physical laws, quantities can be expressed as combinations of other quantities. This leads to the concept of base units, which are independent units of length, mass, time, electric current, temperature, luminous intensity, and amount of substance. Derived units, on the other hand, are units derived from base quantities, encompassing quantities like speed, work, acceleration, energy, and pressure. The choice of a set of related units, including fundamental base units and derived units, forms the basis for different systems of units. These systems vary based on their selection of fundamental units and their interrelation with derived units.
Some of these historical events highlight the potential consequences of not adhering to standardized units, emphasizing the need for clear and agreed-upon measurement systems to avoid errors, accidents, and even tragedies. These examples underscore the critical importance of agreed-upon units in various fields:
NASA Mars Climate Orbiter (1999): The spacecraft was destroyed during its mission to Mars due to miscommunications about forces. Different computer programs used conflicting units of measurement (newton versus pound force), leading to a tragic loss of the mission.
Korean Air Cargo Flight 6316 (1999): The confusion between tower instructions (in meters) and altimeter readings (in feet) resulted in the loss of the aircraft, causing fatalities and injuries. The discrepancy in units contributed to a tragic misunderstanding.
Boeing 767 “Gimli Glider” (1983): This incident occurred when an aircraft ran out of fuel mid-flight due to mistakes in calculating fuel supply. The use of both metric and Imperial measures, along with confusion between mass and volume measures, led to the dangerous situation.
Christopher Columbus’s Journey (1480s): Columbus mistakenly assumed the mile in the Arabic estimate was the same as the shorter Italian mile when planning his Atlantic Ocean journey. This led to an inaccurate estimate of the size of a degree and the Earth’s circumference, impacting navigation.
The method known as “Attribute Listing,” was developed by Robert P. Crawford. This technique is designed for individual use, specifically for problem-solving and idea generation. This method is effective for systematically breaking down a problem or idea into its constituent parts, allowing for a detailed exploration and generating insights for improvement. It involves few steps for listing attributes of an item or idea and then systematically examining each attribute to identify opportunities for improvement: (i) List Attributes: Start by listing all the relevant attributes of the item or idea you are examining. These attributes could include physical characteristics, social aspects, pricing considerations, process-related details, and psychological factors. (2) Examine Each Attribute: Go through each attribute on your list and analyze it individually. Consider how each attribute contributes to the overall performance, quality, speed, or cost of the item or idea. (3) Generate Improvement Ideas: For each attribute, brainstorm ideas on how it can be improved. This could involve enhancing its functionality, reducing costs, improving efficiency, or addressing any challenges associated with that particular attribute. (4) Consider Multiple Perspectives: Attribute Listing encourages a comprehensive analysis by allowing you to consider various perspectives. It’s not limited to physical characteristics but extends to social, pricing, process, and psychological dimensions. (5) Apply to Complex Products or Services: Attribute Listing is particularly useful for complex products or service procedures. For instance, you can apply it to analyze the stages in a service process and generate ideas for enhancing quality, speed, or cost-effectiveness. (6) Explore Beyond Physical Attributes: While physical attributes are considered, Attribute Listing encourages a holistic approach. You can explore social, pricing, process, and psychological attributes to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the subject.
DESIGN PARAMETERS
1: Weight of an object: Weight of Moving Object , Weight of stationary Object
2: Length of an object (and/or position or topography or slope) : Length of Moving Object, Length of stationary object (ex. distance or distribution or range or proximity across one dimension)
3: Area of an object (and/or position or topography or slope) : Area of Moving Object, Area of stationary object (ex. distance or distribution across two dimensions)
4: Volume of an Object (and/or position or topography or slope): Volume of Moving Object, Volume of stationary object (ex. distance or distribution across three dimensions), Capacity, Mass, Density, Concentration
5: Speed of Object (or direction): Acceleration (rate of change of speed), Flow rate, Reciprocal Time, Vibration, Frequency, Viscosity, Velocity,
6: Force: Tension, Stress
7: Pressure
8: Temperature
9: Reliability (dependability)
10: Durability (degree of wear)
11: Visibility (accessibility): Number of interfaces (Ex: R&D Interfaces, Production Interfaces, Marketing Interfaces, Customer Interfaces, Vendor Interfaces, Affiliate Interfaces, Supply Interfaces, support interfaces)
12: Simplicity of Design: System complexity
13: Ergonomics
14: Variability : Levels of services), Interoperability or configurability
15: Complexity or Difficulty: Difficulty of manufacture, Difficulty of repair (maintainability), Difficulty of use (usability) , Difficulty of disposal. Difficulty of detection (testability & QA), Auditability
16: Power of the Moving Object:
17: Energy : Energy Consumption, Energy Losses, Acoustics, Luminance, Potential Difference, Resistance, Inductance, Impedence. Conductance, Field, Flux , Information or Data Flow/Transmission, Communication Flow/Exchange
18: Time of Action: Responsiveness, Cycle Time (ex. order fulfillment, cash to cash cycle time, transportation time, supply time, production time, R&D time, maintenance or repair time, support time, warranty period, throughput, availability, delivery time (waiting or intermittent delay)
19: Productivity: Efficiency (frequencey or quantity delivered or output), Labor intensity, R&D Capability, Production Capability, Distribution Capability, Supply Capability
20: Service Life
21: Accuracy : Accuracy of Manufacture, Accuracy of Measurement, Accuracy of Documentation, Faults (errors)
22: Use (including type) of Resources: Consumption (or reduction) of energy resources, Consumption (or reduction) of material resources (or workforce deployment), Amount of substance (concentration or density ), Cost or financial resources (ex. transportation cost, supply cost, material cost, management cost, land cost, labor cost, energy cost, relocation cost, R&D cost, production cost, support cost), Revenue, Demand, Documentation (consumption or amount of information resources), Reputation, Feedback, Return on resources consumed (or assets used), Scalability (expansion or expandability or enhanceability), Portability, Reusability, Availability (consistency or rate of literacy)
23: Waste of Materials: Waste of Energy, Waste of Time, Waste of Space, Waste of Information
24: Presence of harmful factors: System generated harmful effects, Harmful effects(external) acting on the system, Harmful Factors for Humans (health), Harmful Factors for Environment (Negative impact on the environment) (Harmful emissions into the environment), Size of harmful areas, Noise, Intrusion, Congestion, Anti-Privacy, Pollution, Radiation
25: Inconvenience (degreen of convenience) : opportunity costs, convenience, benefits or extented benefits
25: Possibility of Harmful Events: Content of harmful substances, Risk (size of affected population, R&D risk, production risk, supply risk, support risk), Compliance (regulatory impact), Security
26: Controllability or Difficulty of control: Control complexity
27: Stability (of characteristics) : Capability of change or Adaptability or Versatility or Flexibility or degrees of automation, Compatability or Suitability, Effectiveness or Adherence to the the Demanded Functionality , Capacity of neutralizing, Robustness, Performance (expected functions of an object), Freshness (of Food)
28: Sensitivity: Sensitivity to external influences, Sensitivity to internal influences
29: Precision of Manufacture
1: WEIGHT OF AN OBJECT
The weight of an object is the force exerted on it due to gravity. It is a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and direction. The weight of an object is directly proportional to its mass and the acceleration due to gravity. The weight (W) of an object is given by the formula: m⋅g, where m is the mass of the object and g is the acceleration due to gravity. On Earth, the standard value for g is approximately 9.8 meters per second squared (m/s²). Therefore, an object’s weight can be calculated by multiplying its mass by the acceleration due to gravity. for a moving object, its weight is still determined by the same formula (W=m⋅g).
However, in certain situations, factors like velocity and air resistance may be considered. The overall effect on weight depends on the context. If an object is in free fall (falling only under the influence of gravity), its weight remains the same regardless of its motion. In other cases, additional forces may come into play. For a stationary object, the weight is determined solely by its mass and the acceleration due to gravity. When an object is at rest on the Earth’s surface, the force of gravity pulls it toward the center of the Earth, resulting in its weight. The weight of a stationary object is given by the same formula (W=m⋅g).
It’s important to note that weight is a force, and mass is a scalar quantity representing the amount of matter in an object. The distinction between mass and weight becomes particularly relevant when dealing with objects in different gravitational environments, where the acceleration due to gravity may vary.
2: LENGTH OF AN OBJECT
Understanding the length of objects is foundational in various scientific disciplines, including physics, engineering, architecture, and many practical applications in day-to-day life. The length of an object refers to the extent of its size along a particular dimension. It can be measured in various units such as meters, centimeters, inches, etc. The length of an object is a fundamental aspect of its physical dimensions and is crucial in various scientific, engineering, and everyday contexts.
The length (L) of an object is typically measured along a specific dimension, such as height, width, or depth. It represents the linear extent of the object in that particular direction. Measurement units may vary based on the system used (e.g., meters, feet). The length of a moving object is generally considered to remain constant in classical physics unless there are relativistic effects at very high speeds. For practical purposes, the length of a moving object can be measured just like that of a stationary object, provided relativistic effects are negligible.
The length of a stationary object is a fixed measure along a specific dimension when the object is at rest. It can be determined using various measuring instruments, such as rulers, tape measures, or laser distance measuring devices, depending on the precision required. In a broader sense, the term “length” can be associated with other concepts, such as distance (the separation between two points), distribution (arrangement or spread of objects over a space), range (extent or variety of something), and proximity (closeness of objects in one dimension). Each of these concepts involves measuring or describing the extent or separation along a particular dimension. In specific contexts, length may also refer to the topography or slope of a surface. For example, the length of a slope on a hill or a ramp could indicate the distance covered along the incline.
3: VOLUME OF AN OBJECT
The volume of an object refers to the amount of space it occupies in three dimensions. It is a measure of the total cubic space enclosed by the object and is commonly expressed in cubic units. The concept of volume is fundamental in mathematics, physics, engineering, and various practical applications. The volume (V) of an object is calculated based on its three-dimensional shape and dimensions. Different geometric shapes have specific formulas for determining their volumes. For example, the volume of a rectangular prism is found by multiplying its length, width, and height.
In classical physics, the volume of a moving object typically remains constant unless there are specific deformations or transformations occurring. For regularly shaped objects, the volume calculation is the same whether the object is stationary or in motion. The volume of a stationary object is determined by its dimensions when at rest. Again, various geometric formulas apply to different shapes to calculate their volumes accurately. Measuring the length, width, and height of an object allows for the determination of its volume.
While “volume” traditionally refers to the spatial extent of an object in three dimensions, it can also be associated with concepts such as distance (separation between points), distribution (arrangement or spread of objects), and proximity across three dimensions. These considerations are more about the spatial relationships than the strict geometric definition of volume. In some contexts, particularly in the study of landscapes or topography, the term “volume” might be associated with the physical features of the terrain, including elevations, slopes, or land coverage. Here, the focus is on the three-dimensional extent of the land surface.
The term “capacity” is often used interchangeably with volume, particularly when referring to containers or objects that can hold substances like liquids or gases. In this context, capacity indicates the maximum amount of material that can be accommodated within the given object. Understanding volume is crucial in fields such as geometry, fluid dynamics, architecture, and engineering. It plays a significant role in designing structures, determining material requirements, and solving problems related to three-dimensional space
5: Speed of Object (or direction): Acceleration (rate of change of speed), Flow rate, Reciprocal Time, Vibration, Frequency, Viscosity, Velocity
5: SPEED OF AN OBJECT: Speed is a scalar quantity that refers to the rate at which an object covers distance. It is a measure of how quickly an object moves, indicating the change in position concerning time. The standard unit of speed in the International System of Units (SI) is meters per second (m/s) or, in some cases, kilometers per hour (km/h). Mathematically, speed is defined as: Speed=Distance/Time. Speed is the rate of change of position with respect to time, Distance is the total path length traveled by the object and Time is the duration of the motion. It’s important to note that speed does not have a direction associated with it; it only indicates how fast or slow an object is moving. In contrast, velocity is a vector quantity that includes both speed and direction. Speed, being a scalar, provides information about magnitude only.
Acceleration is a vector quantity that represents the rate at which an object changes its velocity. It involves both a change in the magnitude of velocity and a change in direction. The standard unit of acceleration in the International System of Units (SI) is meters per second squared. Mathematically, acceleration a is defined as: a=Δv/Δt where: a is the acceleration, Δv is the change in velocity, Δt is the change in time. Acceleration can be positive, negative, or zero, depending on whether the object is speeding up, slowing down, or maintaining a constant velocity. If an object is moving in a straight line, the sign of acceleration indicates the direction of the change in velocity. Acceleration plays a crucial role in describing the motion of objects under the influence of external forces, such as gravity or applied forces. It helps quantify how quickly an object’s velocity changes and in what direction.
Flow rate is a measure of the quantity of a fluid (liquid or gas) that passes through a defined cross-sectional area per unit of time. It is often used to describe the amount of material or substance flowing through a conduit or a system. The standard unit of flow rate in the International System of Units (SI) is cubic meters per second , but it can also be expressed in other units like liters per second, gallons per minute, or cubic feet per minute, depending on the specific application. Mathematically, flow rate (Q) is defined as: Q=A⋅v where: Q is the flow rate, A is the cross-sectional area through which the fluid is flowing, and v is the velocity of the fluid. Alternatively, if the fluid density (ρ) is known, the flow rate can be expressed as: Q=ρ⋅A⋅v. Flow rate is essential in various fields such as fluid dynamics, engineering, and environmental science. It helps characterize the movement of fluids in pipes, rivers, or any other conduits. The relationship between flow rate, cross-sectional area, and velocity provides insights into the behavior of fluids in different systems.
Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow or deformation. It quantifies how easily a fluid can move or how readily it takes on the shape of its container. In simple terms, viscosity is the internal friction within a fluid, determining the ease with which its molecules can slide past one another. It is an essential property in fluid dynamics and is crucial in various scientific and industrial applications. There are two types of viscosity: dynamic viscosity (η) and kinematic viscosity (ν). Dynamic Viscosity (η): Dynamic viscosity is the measure of a fluid’s resistance to shear or angular deformation. It is expressed in units of Pascal-seconds (Pa·s) or poise (P). Mathematical Representation: η=τ/γ where η is dynamic viscosity, τ is the shear stress applied to the fluid, γ is the shear rate. Kinematic Viscosity (ν): Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of dynamic viscosity to fluid density. It describes the fluid’s resistance to flow under the influence of gravity. It is expressed in units of square meters per second or stokes (St). Mathematical Representation: ν=η/ρ where ν is kinematic viscosity, η is dynamic viscosity, ρ is fluid density. The higher the viscosity, the more resistant the fluid is to flow, and the slower it moves. Common fluids like water have low viscosity, while substances like honey or motor oil exhibit higher viscosity. Viscosity is a crucial factor in understanding fluid behavior, optimizing industrial processes, and designing systems involving fluid flow, such as pumps, pipelines, and lubrication. It plays a significant role in various industries, including chemical engineering, food processing, medicine, and automotive engineering.
Vibration is a repetitive, oscillatory motion around a reference point or equilibrium in a mechanical system. It involves the periodic back-and-forth or up-and-down movement of an object or a system of objects. Vibration can occur in various forms, including mechanical vibrations of machinery, structural vibrations in buildings, or acoustic vibrations in sound waves. Key features of vibration include: Frequency: The number of oscillations or cycles per unit of time, typically measured in hertz (Hz). Higher frequencies indicate faster oscillations. Amplitude: The maximum displacement or distance that an object moves from its equilibrium position during one cycle of vibration. It represents the intensity or strength of the vibration. Phase: The relative timing or position of an object in its oscillatory cycle, often measured in degrees. Phase provides information about the position of the vibrating object at a specific point in time. Damping: The process of reducing the amplitude of vibrations over time. Damping is crucial in controlling and managing vibrations to avoid excessive motion or damage. Vibration can be caused by various factors, including mechanical forces, external excitations, or natural frequencies of a structure. It is a common phenomenon in engineering, physics, and many other fields. Understanding and controlling vibration is essential in designing structures, machinery, and systems to ensure stability, safety, and optimal performance.
Reciprocal time and frequency are inversely related concepts, where frequency is the reciprocal of time and vice versa. The reciprocal of a quantity is obtained by taking the multiplicative inverse, which means dividing 1 by that quantity. Frequency (f) and Reciprocal Time (1/T). Frequency is the number of oscillations or cycles of a periodic wave that occur in one second. It is measured in hertz (Hz), where 1 hertz is equivalent to one cycle per second. Mathematical Representation: f=1/T , where T is the time period (the time taken for one complete cycle). Reciprocal Time (1/T) is the inverse of time period and is often used to represent frequency. It quantifies the number of cycles per unit of time. In summary, the relationship between frequency and reciprocal time is expressed by the equation f=1/T , indicating that frequency is the reciprocal of time period, and T=1/f emphasizing the inverse relationship between these two parameters. The unit of reciprocal time is hertz (Hz), representing cycles per second.
At an abstract level, these concepts or design features or parameters are somewhat interconnected or interrelated through the fundamental principles of motion, change, and rate. They provide a comprehensive understanding of the dynamic behavior of objects, fluids, and systems in various fields of science and engineering. The relationships between these concepts often involve derivatives (rates of change) and integrals (accumulated quantities) with respect to time, emphasizing the dynamic nature of the phenomena they describe.
Speed is the rate at which an object changes its position with respect to time. Velocity includes both speed and direction. Speed and velocity are fundamental measures of motion, representing how quickly and in what direction an object is moving. Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time. Acceleration describes how an object’s speed or velocity is changing over time, emphasizing changes in motion. Flow rate is the quantity of a fluid passing through a defined cross-sectional area per unit of time. Flow rate is analogous to speed in fluid dynamics, representing the rate of fluid motion. Reciprocal time is the inverse of time or time period, often used to represent frequency. Reciprocal time is related to frequency, which measures the number of occurrences per unit of time. Vibration involves repetitive oscillatory motion. Frequency is the number of oscillations per unit of time. Vibration and frequency are interconnected concepts, where the frequency of vibration describes the rate of oscillation. Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. Viscosity relates to the internal friction within a fluid, affecting how easily it flows. It is influenced by factors such as shear rate and temperature.
6: Force: Tension, Stress
5: CONSOLIDATION (Combining, Integrating, Merging): Consolidate homogeneous (identical, related) objects in space or objects destined for contiguous operations or functions, consolidate homogeneous (identical, related) or contiguous operations or functions in time (to act together at same time)
6: UNIVERSALITY (Multi-functionality, Universal, Standardization): Make a part or object (or system) perform multiple (several different) functions; thereby eliminating the need for other parts (or elements) or objects (or systems), Introduce or use commonly (widely or universally) acceptable standards.
9: PRIOR COUNTERACTION (Preliminary Anti-action): Preload counter tension/stress or perform a counter action to an object (or system) to compensate (or prevent) excessive and undesirable stress (or harmful effects)
10: HOMOGENEITY (Uniformity): Make objects (or systems) interacting with main object (or system) using same material or similar (or matching) properties (or behavior) as the main (or primary) object (or system).
11. CONTINUITY OF USEFUL ACTION (Steady Useful Action): Carry out an action without a break. All parts of the objects should constantly operate at full (or optimal) capacity, all the time, remove (or reduce) idle or intermediate or non-productive action (or motion or work) or harmful factors
12. FEEDBACK: Introduce feedback or facilitate detection or measurement, If the feedback already exists change (or reverse or adjust) it
13. CHANGING COLOR (Use of Color, Change Optical or Visual Properties or Appearance): Change the color of an object (or system) or its environment [IP 32.1] Also Ref: [Trend Line: Changing Color: from fixed mono color to fixed multi-color to variable multi-color to use of variable spatial-temporal full spectrum colors matching with the changing environment], Change the degree of translucency of an object (or system) or its environment [IP 32.2] Also Ref: [Trend Line: Degree of Transparency: from fixed opaque to fixed partially translucent to fixed partially transparent to fixed fully transparent to variable spatial temporal transparency], Use color additives to observe an object (or system) or process which is difficult to see (or observe) otherwise [IP 32.3], Employ emissive or luminescent traces or trace atoms if such colored additives are already used in the object (or system) [IP 32.4]
14. PARTIAL OR EXCESSIVE ACTION (More or Less, Slightly Less or Slightly More, Partial or Overdone) : Achieve slightly less or slightly more of the desired effect (or action) from the object (or system), if it is difficult to obtain exactly 100% of the desired effect (or action) or build margins for errors or deviations or buffers in objects (or systems) or introduce tolerance limits or design an object to work within set tolerance limits or introduce or use more than one instance of object (or system) , at an expense, for continuity in case of failure or improving reliability of the system
15: PRIOR ACTION (Preliminary Action): Perform required change (before it is needed) to an object (or system) either fully or partially in advance, Place or arrange objects (or systems) in advance such that they can come into action from the most convenient location and when needed.
16: CUSHIONING IN ADVANCE (Beforehand Cushioning, Emergency Measures, Fallback Options, Design for Failures): Compensate for the relatively low reliability of an object with emergency measures (or fallback or countermeasures) prepared in advance.
Example: Plastic coating for liquid containers, Back-up Parachutes, Spares, Fire Extinguishers, Air Bags, Quarantine, Vaccination, Immunity Enhancing Drugs
17: EQUIPOTENTIALITY: Change the conditions of the operation or characteristics of the object (or system) in such a way that the object (or system) doesn’t need to be lifted/raised or lowered or significantly reduce the need of energy consumption for the operation (e.g., rolling heavy cylindrical objects on the plane surface instead of lifting it for the transportation)
18: DO IT IN REVERSE (The Other Way Around, Inversion, Upside-Down, Inside-Out, Inversion) : Implement an opposite action (i.e. heating instead of cooling) as against the desired action dictated by the problem, Make the moveable part of an object (or system) or external environment, stationary (or fixed) – and the stationary (or fixed) part moveable, Turn an object (or system) upside-down or inside-out or use other side or property or function than it is originally designed for
Example: Home Delivered Food, Battery Driven Screw Drivers, Moving Sidewalk (transporting standing people), Process of Emptying Containers, Double-sided Wears or Linens (can be used inside-out)
19: SPHEROIDALITY (Curvature, Curve, Curvilinear): Replace linear parts and edges with curved parts, flat surfaces with spherical surfaces, and cube shapes with ball shapes, use rollers, balls, domes, arches, spirals or in general spherical objects, Replace linear motion with rotational motion. Replace ‘back and forth’ motion with a rotating one. (Or vice-versa), Introduce or utilize centrifugal force
Example: Push/Pull versus Rotary Control Switches, Paper Sheets versus Running Rolls, Ball Point Pens (smooth ink distribution), Arches & Domes in Architectures, Screw versus Nail, Threaded Cap versus Push-In Stopper, Ferris Wheel, Pulley System, Bicycle Pedaling, Mixer, Grinder, Washing Machine Dryer
20: DYNAMICITY (Dynamization, Relative Motion): Alter or adjust the characteristics of an object (or system) or outside environment, to gain optimal performance at each stage of an operation, make an immobile or rigid object (or system), movable or interchangeable (or adjustable/adaptable/flexible), Divide an object into elements capable of changing their position relative to each other
Example: Adjustable Mirrors, Steering Wheel and Seats in Vehicles, Multi-Step Transformer, Toothbrush Bristles, Drinking Straws, Road Dividers, “Butterfly” Computer Keyboard, Scissors, Foldable Knife, Retractable Aircraft landing Gear
21: TRANSITION TO NEW DIMENSION (New Dimension, Another Dimension): Transition from one dimension to another, utilize multi-level composition (or stacking or layering) of objects (or systems), Incline (or turn) an object or place on its side, Utilize the opposite or another side of a given object (or system), Project optical lines into neighboring areas, or onto the reverse side of an object
Example:Clip versus Pins, Coiled or Spiraled wires, Spiral Staircase, Infra-red Computer Mouse (space versus surface), Vertical Car Parks, CD Rack, Inclined Bi-Cycle Stand, Dumping Truck, Music Tape/Cassette, Advertisements on Reverse Side of Tickets/Coupons, BacK-2-Back Printed Circuit Board, Light Reflectors
22: MECHANICAL VIBRATION (Vibrate, Oscillate): Utilize frequency or set an object (or system) into oscillation, Increase the frequency of oscillation or vibration (to ultrasonic), use the resonance frequency of an object (or system), Replace mechanical vibration with piezo vibration, use ultrasonic vibrations in conjunction with an electromagnetic field
Example: Vibrating Blades of Electric Shaver, Acoustic or Agitated Cooking, Stethoscope, using radar guns to measure speed of cars on road, Use Vibration for Distribution or Segregation, Ultrasonic Cleaning, Ultrasonic Welding, Resonation for Rapid Cleaning, Gall Stone or Kidney Stone Removal, Quartz Crystal, Mixing Alloys (in Induction Furnace)
23: PERIODIC ACTION: Replace a continuous action with a periodic or pulsating one, change the frequency of periodic action, use pauses between impulses to provide additional (or different) useful action
Example: Pulsating Water Sprinklers, Pulsating Bicycle Light, Repetitive Directional Hammering, Ambulance Siren, Alerting or Warning Lamps, Morse Code, Preventive Maintenance, Recharging
24: RUSHING THROUGH (Skipping, Hurry): Perform harmful and hazardous operations at a very high speed or perform an action with a very high speed or for a very short time to eliminate or reduce harmful and hazardous effect on the object (or system) or its environment
Example: Flash Photography, Laser Eye Correction, Explosive Excavation, High Speed Drills (to avoid heating of surfaces), Cut plastic faster before it decomposes or disorients or deforms
25: CONVERT HARM INTO BENEFITS (Blessing in Disguise, Benefit from Harm): Utilize (or transfer or direct) harmful factors – especially environmental – to an object (or system) to obtain a positive effect, remove (or reduce or sensitivity to) one harmful factor by combining it with another harmful factor, Increase the degree of harmful action to such an extent that it ceases to be harmful
Example: Recycled Paper, Biofuel, Organic Fertilizers, Red Birth Mark Removal Introducing Green Pigments, High Decibel Music Note Superimposed over Noise, Explosive Excavation
26: MEDIATOR (Intermediary): Use (or introduce) an intermediary object (or system) to transfer or carry out an action, connect the object (or system), temporarily to another object (or system) that can be easily removed or separated after its use
Example: Food Preservatives, Chisel (between object and hammer), Teflon (on pans, passes heat (action) to the object, and imparts non- stickiness property), Pot-Holders, Post-It, Paper Clips, Catalysts
27: SELF-SERVICE (Self-X): Make an object (or system) to service (or organize) itself and carry out supplementary and repair operations, Make an object (or system) use waste material or energy
Example: Self-Balancing Wheel, Self-Cleaning Filters, Halogen Lamps, Biofuel, Dynamo, Organic Fertilizers
28: COPYING: Use a simplified, simulated, and inexpensive copy or model of an object (or system) in place of a complex, fragile, expensive, inconvenient to operate original object (or system), Use optical image or copy or reflection or projections instead of an object (or system) in original, use an infrared or ultraviolet copy instead of using visible optical image of an object (or system)
Example: Imitation Jewelry, Paper Models, CAD-CAM, Prototypes, Dummies in Crash Testing, Cadavers or Simulated Patients, Computer Simulation, Audio- Video Tutorials versus Seminars, Image Snapshots (for counting, detection, or analysis etc), Measuring speed of birds using video, Sonograms, Space Surveillance, Data Transfer (Infrared), Infra-red guns to measure speed instead of movie/video, Intruder Alarm Systems
29: DISPOSE (Cheap Short Living Objects, Cheap Disposable): Replace an expensive object with a cheap one (with or without introducing multiplicity), compromising other properties (i.e., longevity, durability)
Example: Diapers, Disposable Plastic Cups, Mousetraps, Match Sticks, Disposable Cameras/Pens, Ice (in ice box) instead of refrigerator
30: MECHANICAL SYSTEM REPLACEMENT (Mechanics Substitution, Another Sense, Replacement of Mechanical System): Replace a mechanical means with an optical, acoustical, thermal or olfactory system i.e. sensory (visual, acoustic, touch, taste, smell), Introduce or use a field (electric, magnetic or electromagnetic etc) inside or to interact with an object (or system), Replace field that are: (a) Stationary with Mobile, (b) Fixed with Varying with time, (c) Random with Structured, Use fields in conjunction with field activated (e.g. ferromagnetic) objects (or systems)
Example: Color Code based part identification and assembling, use a bad smelling compound to alert users of leakage, instead of a mechanical or electrical sensor, Field Activated Switches, Mixing Two Powdered Particles (charging each with electro-statically opposite charges), MRI Scanners, Thermoplastic Metal Coating in Electromagnetic Field
31: PNEUMATICS AND HYDRAULICS (Pneumatics and Hydraulics Construction): Replace solid parts of an object (or system) with a gas or liquid. These parts can then use pneumatic (using gas) or hydrostatic (using liquid) cushions/principles
Example: Hovercraft, Inflatable Mattresses
32: FLEXIBLE MEMBRANES (Flexible Membranes, Flexible Thin Films or Shells): Replace customary inflexible solid constructions with flexible membranes or then films or shells, Isolate an object (or system) from its potentially harmful external environment with flexible membranes or thin films or shells
Example: Stretchable Wears, Sails, Steel Foils (for packaging), Tea Bags, Sunscreen Lotions, Hydrodynamic Bearings, Protective Masks (on liquid or solid surfaces to protect from environmental hazards like heat or temperature or wind or dust etc)
33: POROUS MATERIALS: Make an object (or system) porous or add supplementary porous elements (inserts, covers, etc.), Fill pores in advance with some substance, if an object (or system) is already porous
Example: Foam Metals, Sponge Cleaners, Medicated swabs, Gel Filled Porous Material (in seats, mattresses etc), Porous Metal Mesh (to wick excess of solder from the joint)
34: DISCARDING AND RECOVERING (Rejecting and Regenerating, Charge and Discharge, Design for Reusability): Reject (or discard, dissolve, evaporate, melt, disappear, appear to disappear etc) an element of an object (or system) after its intended function is achieved or is rendered useless after an operation, restore (or recover or regenerate or return etc) used-up parts or its characteristics (directly or indirectly) during an operation. Need based assembling-disassembling of system, Make use of object (or system) or its characteristics as temporary part of the main system
Example: Bio-degradable Packaging Material, Rocket Boosters, Bullet Castings, Medicine Capsules, Inductors, Capacitors (or any other transient energy accumulator or dispensing element), Rechargeable Batteries, Self- sharpening lawn mover blades, Self-cleaning tapes, Performance Based Roles
35: PARAMETER CHANGE (Transformation of Properties): Change the physical state of the object (or system) or its parts, Change the concentration or density of the object (or system) or its parts, Change the degree of flexibility of the object (or system) or its parts, Change the temperature or volume or shape or weight or size or pressure or any characteristics of the object (or system) to optimize the effect/objective of the system.
36: PHASE TRANSITION: Make use of the phenomena of phase change or effects developed during such change (i.e., a change in the volume, the liberation or absorption of heat etc)
Example: Freezing Water (& using expansion as effect), Boiling (& using latent heat or different boiling points for desired effect e.g., liquid-liquid separation, heat pump uses the heat of vaporization and heat of condensation of a closed thermodynamic cycle to deliver useful function, Melting (& using physical effect or change in dimensions, volume as effect e.g., wax candles)
37: THERMAL EXPANSION (Relative Change): Use expansion or contraction of material by changing its temperature (as in transformation of properties), Use various materials with different coefficient of thermal expansion transformation of properties in conjunction with composite material)
Example: Shape Memory Alloys, Bi-metallic Strips (in Thermostats)OXIDATION (Accelerated Oxidation, Strong Oxidants, Enriched Environment): Make transition from one level of oxidation to the next higher level: (a) Ambient atmospheric air to oxygenated (b) Oxygenated to pure oxygen (c) Oxygen to ionized oxygen (d) Ionized oxygen to ozoned oxygen (e) Ozone oxygen to ozone (f) Ozone to singlet oxygen
38: INERT ENVIRONMENT (Calm Environment, Inert Atmosphere, Design for Environmental Sustenance): Replace a normal environment with an inert one, introduce a neutral substance or inert additives into an object (or system) or its environment, Carry out a process in a vacuum.
39: OXIDATION (Strong Oxidants) : Principle of “strong oxidants” is related to the use of substances with powerful oxidizing properties to address and solve problems in innovative ways. In the context of TRIZ, oxidants are substances that facilitate oxidation reactions, where a substance loses electrons. In inventive problem-solving, the principle of strong oxidants suggests considering the introduction or utilization of substances with strong oxidizing properties to improve a system, process, or product. Oxidation reactions can lead to various effects, such as the removal of impurities, enhancement of certain properties, or changes in chemical compositions.
40: COMPOSITE MATERIAL: Replace homogeneous or uniform materials (or objects or systems) with composite ones
Example: Aircraft Structures like Wings to provide high strength at low weight, Composite epoxy resin/carbon fiber golf club shafts, Fiberglass surfboards
REFERENCES
40 Principles: TRIZ Keys to Technical Innovation, Genrich Altshuller
Systematic Innovation: An Introduction to TRIZ, John Terninko, Alla Zusman, Boris Zlotin,1998
Hands On Systematic Innovation, Darrell Mann, 2002
And Suddenly the Inventor Appeared, Genrich Altshuller
Matrix 2003, Updating the TRIZ Contradiction Matrix, Darrell Mann, Simon Dewulf, Boris Zlotin, Alla Zusman
40 Inventive Principles with Examples, Karen Tate and Ellen Domb, 1997
