Research For Distance Education (415)

Unit 1: Introduction to Educational Research: Purpose , Nature and Scope

Sources of Knowledge 1.3 Purpose of Research 1.3.1 Training and Research 1.3.2 Problem Solving 1.3.3 Search for Truth: Scientific Inquiry and Theory Development

1.4 Nature of Research 1.4.1 Characteristics of Research 1.4.2 Types of Research 1.4.3 Meaning of Educational Research 1.4.4 Scientific Approach in Educational Research

1.5 Scope of Educational Research 1.5.1 Methodological Classification 1.5.2 Area-wise Classification

In deductive reasoning, the investigator proceeds from general to specific statements. In inductive reasoning, the argument and strength is derived from the observed phenomena. Both deductive and inductive reasoning have made significant contribution towards developing a systematic approach to establish truth. Deductive reasoning is a thinking process in which one proceeds from general to specific statements, through logical arguments. Inductive reasoning derives its argument and strength from the observed phenomena. Scientific approach is generally described as a process in which investigators move inductively from their observations to hypotheses and then deductively from the hypotheses to the logical implications of the hypotheses. This approach, or ‘research’ as source of information, has been increasingly used to prepare strategies and arrive at definite conclusions. As research systematically describes or measures reality in an objective way, it is a better source of knowledge, than one’s own experience, customs and traditions, deductive or inductive reasoning. The second purpose of research is diagnosing and solving the problems in the system. In this case, the system is distance education. Search for truth is the biggest challenge in research. Research in search of truth is often classified as pure research in the otherwise controversial pure- applied research continuum. The search for truth, from the angle of research, is the ability to  generalize and thus, create knowledge. Such generalizations are derived from occurrences in repeated instances

Scientific enquiry starts with facts and then moves towards theorizing. To be useful, facts must be organized, and the primary purpose of the  scientific method is to develop a mechanism of organizing the facts, as they accumulate, and become meaningful from the stand point of their objectives. Through empirical investigations, scientists gather many facts. As these facts accumulate, there is a need for integration, organization, and classification in order to make the isolated findings meaningful.

Significant relationship in the data must be identified and explained. In other words, theories must be formulated. Theory may be defined as “a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions and propositions that present a systematic view of a phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of predicting and explaining the phenomena” (Kerlinger, 1973).

A hypothesis, when accepted, explains a small number of facts and the relationship between them. Generalization, as the term denotes, is a hypothesis based on broader phenomena. Theory, explains even more facts and their inter-relations. Theories themselves range from the simple to the more sophisticated. Finally there are laws, which have the greatest scope and generality.

There are several purposes to be served by a theory in the development of science. We shall briefly consider three of them here. First, theory summarizes and puts in order the existing knowledge in a particular area. It permits deeper understanding of data and translates empirical findings into a more easily retainable and adaptable form. The theory of oxidation for instance, places into focus many of the chemical reactions common to everyday life. Secondly, theory provides a provisional explanation for observed events and relationships. It identifies the variables that are related and the nature of their relationship. A theory of learning, for example, could explain the relationship between the speed and efficiency of learning and such other variables as motivation, reward and practice. Lastly, theory permits the prediction of the occurrence of phenomena and enables the investigator to postulate and, eventually, to discover hitherto unknown phenomena.

A theory is built upon collected facts. The investigator then searches, makes intelligent guesses as to how the facts are ordered, adds missing ideas or links, and puts forward a hypothesis; deduces what consequence should follow from the hypothesis and looks for further facts which are consistent or otherwise with the deductions; builds a wider generalization or conceptual framework on more facts; and eventually outlines a theory. Theories are solidly based on evidence. And they are important practical tools which enable us to advance our knowledge still further. Once a theoretical framework has been elaborated we know what facts to look for to confirm or to deny the theory; also, we have a conceptual framework inside with which our evidence can be tested.

We may think of six levels of theorizing, which we briefly discuss below.

Level 1. Hypothesis formation: This is the level of hypothesis formation. Any hypothesis which is to be used as a basis for research goes beyond the facts on which it is based. The purpose is to establish the existing state of affairs. Nearly all surveys are conducted for this purpose. Thus, students of education may conduct a survey of what the pupils think of a particular aspect of the curriculum; how much time is spent by pupils in watching television, etc. Direct study of aspects is probably the simplest to undertake though this does not mean that it is easy to plan and execute

Level 2. Elementism: Examples of theories at this level are primitive forms of classification in terms of some significant set of ideas or idea. In the case of education and distance education, classification of abilities derived from factor analysis, or the classification of teaching acts that may be the result of extensive classroom observation, would come under the level of elementism.

Level 3. Descriptive theories and taxonomies: Formulation of descriptive theories and taxonomies occurs at a more complex level than mere classification. An example of theorizing at this level is the taxonomy of human learning provided by Gagne. Gagne classified learning into eight different categories, which vary from the most simple to the most complex. Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive behaviours can also be placed under this level.

Level 4. Classification: For development of any kind of useful classificatory system, there is a need for a set of theoretical ideas to underlie the classification. The classification of animals acquired significance only after it was realized that, the species could be fitted into a system in which the evolutionary relationships between animals became the basis for classification. Although the concept of evolution became a basis for systematic classification of living creatures the theory of evolution itself represents theory construction at a higher level. In this type of theorizing, abstract ideas are introduced to explain relationships between observed phenomena. The classical conditioning theory of Pavlov falls into this class of theorizing. The dog learns to salivate at the sound of the bell because the sound of the bell and the presence of food are conditions that become linked in some unseen way in the brain of the animal. Theories at this level may still be quite primitive; for example, it is quite difficult to carry out theorizing at higher levels in behavioural and social sciences.

Levels 5 and 6. Postulates and theories: the higher levels: These are levels of theorizing observed in physical sciences. At the highest level, a theory consists of a set of basic statements called the axioms of theory, which tell us what the theory is all about. Such axiomatic statements or postulates as they are called, include primitive terms. These are terms that are intuitively understood and cannot be otherwise completely defined. One distinction that can be made between Level 5 and Level 6 is that the former is reserved for incomplete theories. And the latter, i.e., Level 6 theories represent the ultimate in scientific formulations. They represent the closest approximations to what one might call the accurate description of universal laws.

Differentiate between fundamental and applied research. 

We can think of two major types of research—fundamental or basic research, and applied research. This classification is based on the goal or objective of the research. 

Fundamental Research: This type of research aims at obtaining the empirical data that can be used to formulate, expand or evaluate a theory. This type of study is not oriented in design or purpose towards the solution of practical problems. Its essential aim is to expand the frontiers of knowledge without any intention of practical application. Of course, the findings may be eventually applied to practical problems that have social value. For example, advances in the practice of medicine are dependent upon basic research in biochemistry and microbiology. Likewise, progress in educational practise has been related to progress in the discovery of general laws of learning through basic research in psychology, education and sociology. The primary concern of basic research, however, is the creation of knowledge solely for the sake of knowledge. Its design is not hampered by considerations of special usefulness of the findings

Applied Research: Applied research is directed towards the solution of an immediate, specific and practical problem. This is a research performed in relation to actual problems and under conditions in which they are found in practice. Through applied research, educators are often able to solve their problems at the appropriate level of complexity. For instance, in the classroom teaching-learning situation, we may depend on basic research for discovering the more general laws of learning, but applied research must be conducted in order to determine how these laws operate in the classroom. This approach is essential if scientific changes in teaching practices are to be effected. It needs to be noted that there is not always a sharp line of demarcation between basic and applied research. Certainly, applications of theory help in solving practical problems. We apply theories of learning in the classroom. On the other hand, basic research may depend upon the findings of applied research to complete its theoretical formulations. An experiment in classroom learning could shed some light on a learning theory. Furthermore, observations in a practical situation serve to test theories and may lead to the formulation of new theories.

 Discuss any three elements of critical social research. 

Explain the need for conducting research in distance education.

The purpose of research can be captured in a hierarchical/taxonomic fashion. The lowest level or the first level in the purpose of research is training. The second level is research for problem solving, and The third and the highest form is research in search of truth or knowledge generation. Executing a research project in a scientific manner needs training in research methods. This course on research methodology provides the theoretical background for your research project.

 The major characteristics of any research, are: objectivity, precision, design and verifiability. Let us look at these attributes more closely: 

Objectivity: Ideally, research is beyond the subjective bias of the researcher. The researcher makes deliberate efforts to eliminate personal  reference resisting the temptation to seek only such data that supports his/her hypothesis. The scientific research has no onus to persuade or prove. The emphasis is on testing, rather than proving  the hypothesis. The researcher is willing to suspend personal judgement and permit the data and logic to lead independently to a sound conclusion. Objectivity is achieved through standardization of research instruments, choosing appropriate research design and tools and ensuring dependability of data.

Precision: Research uses a technical language, so as to convey the exact meaning to the reader, e.g., validity, reliability, random sampling, etc. The most precise expression in quantitative research is a mathematical equation or statistical finding which explains or represents the truth. Precision in qualitative research is achieved through words rather than numbers. Precise language describes the study accurately so that the study may be replicated or the results correctly used. Design: As mentioned earlier, the researcher has to have a systematic design. This will imply that any scientific inquiry will, in general, undergo the following steps: – definition of the problem, – statement of the hypothesis, – collection and analysis of data, – testing and confirmation or rejection of hypothesis, and – reporting of results. Only if the research has an orderly design, it can be replicated for verification. 

Verifiability: This is an important characteristic of every research. Research design and findings are presented to the professional community for other researchers to analyze, confirm or reject them. Research is a social enterprises and its information is open for public scrutiny. This  characteristics of research, i.e., verifiability, is related to the criteria of objectivity and precision. Only through further investigation or replication of studies can the results of a single study be confirmed or revised. Through this process, a body of new knowledge is developed and new questions identified.  Verifiability is achieved primarily through two different approaches: first, analyzing the same data on the same sample through alternative analytical tools (statistical methods), second, replicating the study on a different sample.

Elaborate any one dimension of research in distance education.

Discuss the research findings in the area of “Instructional Processes” in India and abroad. Do you find any gap ? If yes, formulate a research problem to explore the gaps.

What is empirical research ? Describe the main features of empirical research in the context of open and distance learning. What are the main features of empirical research ? Discuss the steps involved in carrying out empirical research in open and distance education.

Discuss the scope of Experimental Research in Distance Education. Explain the designs of experimental study with help of examples. 

The major areas of educational research are related to development, curriculum, teaching, sociological academic issues affecting education, educational administration, development of educational technology and problems of individual differences among learners

Education is an interdisciplinary field of inquiry that has borrowed concepts and theories from physics, biology, psychology, sociology, anthropology, political science, economics and other disciplines. The methodologies used in educational research are also derived from several disciplines, e.g. systems analysis from biology, experimental designs from physical and natural sciences, observation and interviewing from anthropological  sciences, testing from the discipline of psychology, and the like.

This categorization, that of basic and applied research, is true for educational research as well. In addition, educational research can be categorized differently under four types: Historical research, Descriptive research, Experimental research and Action research. Brief notes on all these types and the methods involved therein are given below to continue the discussion.

Historical research: This type of research describes what was. The process involves investigation, recording, analysing and interpreting the events of the past in order to make generalizations; these generalization are helpful in understanding the past, building a perspective about the present, and to a limited extent, in anticipating the future. The main purpose of historical research, therefore, is to arrive at an exact account of the past so as to gain a clearer perspective for the present. And this knowledge further enables us, at least partially, to predict and control our future existence/activities.

Descriptive research: This type of research describes what is. It involves the description, recording, analysis and interpretation of conditions that exist. It involves some type of comparison or contrast and attempts to discover relationships existing between variables. Much educational research is aimed at describing the characteristics of students and the educational environment. The nature of prevailing conditions, educational practices and existing attitudes must be determined before we can move on to solving problems about learners, institutional organization or the teaching of a subject. Research of this nature may not answer basic questions, but it does permit the gathering of information which serves as a basis for future research. 

Experimental research: This type of research describes what will be when certain variables are carefully controlled or manipulated. The focus is on the relationship between two sets of variables. One set of variables is deliberately manipulated (experimental treatment of the independent variable) to examine it’s or impact on another set of variables (dependent variables). For example, in one of the experimental studies, a distance education tutor held specially designed contact classes (independent variable or treatment) for a particular group of distance learners and studied its impact on their performance in the university examination (dependent variable). The experimental research involved systematic recording of data and scientific analysis later. This type of research leads to developing testable hypotheses, generalizations and predictions. This methodology is derived largely from the physical sciences.

Action research: Action research involves the application of the steps of the scientific method to educational problems. Although it is similar in some respects to experimental research, action research differs principally in the extent to which findings can be generalized. Primary concern for action research is problem solving, hence, it is focused on the immediate application and not on the development of a theory. Many action research projects are carried out in a single classroom by a single teacher; and the others, by all the teachers in an institution or even any aspect. Its findings are to be evaluated in terms of local applicability, not in terms of universal validity. Its purpose is to improve institutional practices.

Select a research problem from the field of open and distance learning and state the purpose for selecting this specific research problem within 200 words. Prepare a research proposal consisting of all the components within 1200 words. 

Compare various research studies carried out on ‘distance learners’ at the national and international levels.